Ways with words in Chinese and English cultures: A comparative note

• Introduction
• Difference in greetings and farewells
• Ways of address
• Compliments and praise
• Different social amenities
• Conclusion
• References

Culture consists of all the shared products of human society. This means not only such material things as cities, organizations and schools, but also non-material things such as ideas, customs, family patterns, languages. Putting it simply, culture refers to the entire way of life of a society, "the ways of a people." The term 'culture' here refers to the total pattern of beliefs, customs, institutions, objects, and techniques that characterize the life of a human community.

Language is intimately tied to man’s feelings and activity. It is bound up with nationality, religion, and the feeling of self. It is used for work, worship, and play by everyone, be he beggar or banker, savage or civilized. So language is a part of culture and plays a very important role in the society. Some social scientists consider it the keystone of culture. Without language, they maintain, culture would not be possible. On the other hand, language is influenced and shaped by culture; it reflects culture. In the broadest sense, language is the symbolic representation of a people, and it comprises their historical and cultural backgrounds as well as their approach to life and their ways of living and thinking.

There are many differences in language and culture between Chinese and native speakers of English, such as language, manners of dress, conduct in public, eating habits and so on. Here I’d like to focus in this discussion the cultural differences in everyday conversation. The language differs somewhat from country to country, although such differences may not be noticeable at first. For example, trams in England are called trolley in the U.S.; Americans say You’re welcome in reply to Thank you, whereas Englishmen would say Not at all or Don’t mention it or It’s a pleasure.

And there are differences of national origin, class, geographical region, occupation, age and sex. However, there are certain attitudes and ideas, certain culturally prescribed rules of behavior that seem to be accepted by most Americans and Englishmen, certain ways of social interaction that are generally observed.

Turing to China, the problem is similar. Chinese language and culture have their local variations, therefore I shall limit my study mainly to the rules of behavior that are accepted by most Chinese.

DIFFERENCE IN GREETINGS AND FAREWELLS

"chi le ma?" is a common Chinese way of greeting around meal time. A foreign teacher from Britain had an appointment at noon. “ chi le ma? ” one of his Chinese students asked when he was passing by. The foreign teacher merely nodded with a smile, waved goodbye and went off. He realized that his student’s remark was nothing more than a Chinese way of saying Hello or Hi. If the greeting had been put literally into English Have you eaten yet? Or Have you had your lunch? it would have sounded rather unusual. To the native speakers, the greetings might mean this: " I haven’t had yet. Come on, let’s go together and get something to eat," or " If you haven’t, I was just going to invite you to my place." In other words, it could indicate an invitation to a meal. One of my friends from Spain who had not been long in China once asked me, "Why do my Chinese friends always ask me if I have had my lunch?" and she complained in broken Chinese "ni men wei shen mo lao wen wo chi le fan mei you? Wo you qian." To her way of thinking, people were concerned that she was not getting her meals properly because of lack of money. Clearly, she was offended.

There is a similar Chinese greeting, such as "shang na qu a? Dao na qu la?" which if translated literally, would be Where are you going? Or Where have you been? The natural reaction of most English-speaking people to this greeting would most likely be It’s none of your business!

Fortunately, not all greetings sound strange or arouse displeasure. Many are similar, some are merely different. While greetings in many languages often indicate the time of day, there may be inconsistencies within a language. English has Good morning, Good afternoon and Good evening but not Good noon. And Good night is not a greeting at all (to most English-speaking people), but an expression of farewell.

When Chinese meet for the first time, there is no special expression for the occasion, we often use body language, nodding, smiling, shaking hands..., but when most English-speaking people meet for the first time, they often say something like I’m pleased to meet you. And when they part, they are expected to remark It’s nice meeting you or It’s nice to have met you or something similar.

When people part, they usually say Good-bye, Bye-bye, See you. Similar expressions are found in almost all languages. But there may be interesting differences, as in Chinese when a distinguished guest drops in for a visit, or if the visitor is one with whom the hosts are not very familiar. The Chinese custom when such a guest leaves is for the hosts to see the visitors to the door or gateway. It is customary for the guest to say to his hosts "qing liu bu." The final words of the hosts are usually "man zou, zou hao, man dian er qi, xiao xin kai che". None of these should be translated directly. Stay here would sound strange; Go slowly or carefully, Walk slowl yor carefully or Ride slowly or carefully, Driving carefully or Careful driving would be equally so. A smile and a gesture of farewell would be enough.

WAYS OF ADDRESS

English-speaking people tend to address others by their first name, eg. Tom, Michael, Linda, Jane, etc.rather than calling the person Mr. Summers, Mrs. Howard or Miss Jones. This is especially common among Americans, even when people meet for the first time. This applies not only to people of nearly the same age, but also of different ages.

It is very common to hear a child calling a much older person Joe, Ben, May, Helen etc. This may even include the child’s parents or grandparents. People of different social status do the same. For example, many college students call their professors by their first names. Their professors do not regard this as a sign of disrespect or familiarity, but rather, as an indication that the professor is considered affable and has a sense of equality. This is unacceptable in Chinese culture. One can imagine the reactions of adults if a child were to call a grandparent by his or her first name, or a student to do the same in addressing a teacher in such a 'rude' manner. A quick reprimand, and possibly even a spanking for the child, would be sure to follow.

One can infer from the preceding that the Chinese behaviour of addressing members of one’s family, relatives or close neighbors as "er ge, sanjie, si shen er, zhou da bo" should not be carried over into English. In English, the name alone, whether it be for man or woman, would ordinarily be enough. The main exceptions are addressing one’s parents (Dad, Mom, Mum or Mother), one’s grandparents (Grandpa, Grandma) and sometimes an older relative (Aunt Mary or Uncle Jim). Notice that the given name, and not the family name, is used. And even with relatives, Americans tend to use just the first name and leave out the term of relationship. It should be mentioned that in English 'Brother Joseph' or 'Sister Mary' would commonly be understood as referring to persons belonging to a Catholic group or some religious or professional society.

Another common Chinese form of address is the use of a person’s title, office, or occupation, such as "Zhang ju zhang, li jing li, wang xiao zhang". But one seldom hears English speakers addressing others as Bureau Director Smith, Manager Jackson, Principle Morris.

In English, only a few occupations or titles would be used: 'Doctor' is common for those who have qualified in the medical profession, and 'Judge' for those authorized to try cases in law courts; Governor and Mayor_may be used for those who hold such offices, although often without the name. The same with Professor. However, there are very few others.

It should be noted that in addressing military officers in Chinese, "chen si ling, hao tuan zhang, liang pai zhang" are common. English speaking people, however, tend to use the rank of the person, and not the command or duties that he has been as signed: for example, Captain Johnson, rather than Company Commander Johnson, Admiral Benjamin, rather than Fleet Commander Benjamin.

English translations of Chinese works usually keep such forms as Grandpa, Auntie, Sister-in-law, but they sound strange to the English ear. In English-language writings about China, such terms are used in order to keep or give a Chinese flavor to the story. some of these terms, though, are especially confusing. How to address a teacher has long been a problem. Should it be Teacher or Teacher Zhang? Neither of these is in keeping with English custom. Should we say Comrade or Comrade Li? These involve using the term comrade, which is not widely accepted in non-socialist countries. Or should we simply follow the English sociolinguistics and call the teacher Mr. Zhang, Mrs.Yang, Miss Fei? All of these would sound ill-mnnered in Chinese if school-age youngsters were to do so. Bur we addressed male teacher sir in the schools or universities many years ago.

Other difficult terms are "shi fu, jing cha shushu, jie fang jun shushu." To translate the former as master carries the idea of a master-servant relationship, or a relationship that "shi fu" does not have in present-day usage. The problem is further complicated by the fact that the term is now widely used as a general form of address for people in various occupations, for both men and women, and not just for veteran craftsmen or women, chefs or automobile drivers, as in earlier times. Uncle policeman for "jing cha shushu" sounds very odd-----perhaps one reason is that uncle connotes endearment, whereas policeman does not have the same connotation to English ears. P.L.A. Uncle for "jie fang jun shushu" not only sounds strange, but often leaves people wondering what is meant, for very few people outside of China know what the letters P.L.A. stand for.

Interestingly, there is no general term in English for getting the attention of a stranger, or of a person whose name we may not know. In Chinese we have "tong zhi" and the now fashionable "shi fu". Then what do people do in English if such a need arises? Depending on the situation, English custom might suggest using some such expression as Excuse me, Pardon me, or in England, I say there. Expressions like Hey, or Hey, you or You, there are used, but are not considered police. Often, people resort to a way that needs no language. They simply clear their throat loudly, or make some noise or gesture to attract the person’s attention.

COMPLIMENTS AND PRAISE

There are differences for American English and Chinese speakers in response to compliments: Americans tend to accept the compliment while Chinese generally murmur some reply about not being worthy of the praise.

Consider the following examples:

1. A young Chinese woman was complimented by an Australian for the lovely dress that she was wearing. "It’s exquisite. The colors are so beautiful!" She was pleased but some what embarrassed. In a typical Chinese response, she replied, "Oh, it’s just an ordinary dress that I bought in China."
2. An acquaintance of a Chinese scholar introduced him to another foreign friend. She said, "Ron, let me introduce Mr. Chen, an outstanding physicist and one of the nicest people I know." Mr. Chen offered his hand to the newcomer but looked at his hostess and said with a smile, "Should I blush, or should I tell him you don’t really mean it?"

In both cases, the Chinese expressions conveyed a message quite different from that which was intended. In the case of the Chinese woman, the reply could have meant that the one paying the compliment did not know what a really good dress is; otherwise, how could she get so excited about an ordinary dress? The implication was that the American woman’s taste in clothing was questionable. In the second case, if Chen had not been smiling, his words could have been interpreted as meaning "You’re just saying that to be polite; you don’t really mean that." So in one case, the person had poor judgment. In the other, the later case, the hostess was not sincere. Quite a gap between intention and message!

Certain remarks that might be fitting and proper in Chinese could lead to similar negative results.

1. A foreign visitor was looking at the host’s potted flowers with obvious admiration. The plants were growing well and some were blooming profusely. The host remarked differently. "Growing flowers is my hobby, but I’m not much good at it."
2. A Canadian woman acquaintance of a Chinese art teacher asked him to look over an article that she had written about Chinese painting. He agreed, but added that "I really know so little about the subject."

In both cases the Chinese would be suspected of "fishing for a compliment," even though the remarks might have been quite sincere. In the first cases, the foreign visitor was almost forced to say something like "But these flowers are beautiful." Or "I wish I could do as well!" And in the second case, the Canadian had to say, "Oh, come on, I know you’re an expert on Chinese art."

Or she could have said "Well, I certainly don’t know anybody who knows more than you do!" Forced compliments like these can leave a bad taste in the mouth. Besides, what could be the value of such praise?

Cultural differences also exist in who can be complimented. It would be very usual to hear an American woman or Australian woman talking about a son or daughter of hers how bright he/she is, what good marks he/she makes in school, how active the child is in his/her stamp-collecting group, when and where he/she performed in a concert, etc. In Chinese, this would be considered bad taste: one simply does not praise member of one’s own family in front of others.

Another example of a Chinese taboo is complimenting a man on his wife’s looks. The remark "You have a lovely wife." or "Your wife is very beautiful." would be regarded as almost indecent by many Chinese, especially those beyond their youth. Yet the some compliment would be considered perfectly natural and even highly appreciated by Westerners.

DIFFERENT SOCIAL AMENITIES

Both Chinese and English have expressions for gratitude, apologies, remarks preceding a request; for example, there are. "xie xie, dui bu qi,qing..." Thank you, I’m sorry, Excuse me. On the whole, they are quite similar and present no problem. However, even among these there are certain differences.

Thank you, and Please-----Both of these are used more widely than the Chinese "xie xie, qing " For minor favors like borrowing a pencil, asking directions, requesting someone to pass on a message, calling a person to the telephone, etc, such polite expressions are often omitted by Chinese, especially among close friends and members of the family. The more frequent use of Thank you and Please by Westerners is often regarded as unnecessary and even tiresome by many Chinese. On the other hand, the Chinese attitude----- that appreciation is understood and need not be expressed----- is sometimes taken for rudeness or lack of consideration by Westerners.

Replies to Thank you are similar. The most common are Not at all, Don’t mention it, You’re welcome, "mei shen mo, bu yong xie". But what reply should be given by guides and service people when a foreign person says Thank you for a job well done? This is a situation often met by hotel attendants, museum or exhibition guides and tour guides. To translate the Chinese expression "zhe shi wo ying gai zuo de". as It’s my duty conveys the idea that the Chinese attendant or guide didn’t really want to do it, that he/she did it only because it was his/her duty. Quite a different message is conveyed! A proper reply might be I’m glad to be of help or It’s a pleasure.

The Chinese term "qing" is usually regarded as equivalent to Please. However, in certain situations the English Please would not be used. When offering or urging another person to be first in going through a door or getting in a car, the expression is generally After you (not You go first, as some people not well-acquainted with English are apt to say). At the meal table, Help yourself is customary when urging someone to start eating, or take more of the food.

Excuse me ------ This is a general term preceding a request or interruption. In Chinese, however, there are different terms: "lao jia" when asking a favor or requesting a person do something: "jie guang, qing rang yi rang". When asking a person to step aside or make room: "qing wen" when asking for information or making a query. Foreigners not knowing this distinction tend to use "dui bu qi" for all such situations when they speak Chinese.

The Chinese "xin ku le" is a good warm expression showing concern. Or it may be used in recognition of the fact that a person has put in considerable effort or gone through some hardship to achieve something. To put "xin ku le" into proper English, however, demands care; there is no equivalent that can fit all situations. To translate it simply as You’ve had a hard time is hardly enough; in some circumstances it might even give the wrong impression. If used as a greeting to a person who has just completed a long trip, "xin ku le" could be expressed as You must have had a tiring journey or You must be tired from such a long trip. When commending people who have finished a difficult task or are still working on it, one might say Well done; That was (You’ve got) a hard job. None of these English expressions, however, carries as much meaning or warm feeling as the Chinese.

CONCLUSION

Learning a foreign language well means more than merely mastering the pronunciation, grammar, words and idioms. It means learning also to see the world as native speakers of that language see it, learning the ways in which their language reflects the ideas, customs, and behavior of their society, learning to understand their "language of the mind". Learning a language, in fact, is inseparable from learning its culture.

Social scientists tell us that cultures differ from one another, that each culture is unique. As cultures are diverse, so languages are diverse. Understanding is not always easy. So it’s very important to study the culture differences between languages and the difference between daily conversation is only one part of it. I hope the above study will be of interest and of possible use and helpful to us.

REFERENCES

Googy, Jack (1977) Literacy in Traditional Societies. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Nida, Eugene A. (1975) Language Structure and Translation. California: Stanford University Press.

Stubbs, M. (1980) Language and Literacy. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd