| CONTENTS |
Issue 15 - 2005
Registers in International Diplomacy: Generalized Stylistic Choices in SpeechesHafriza BurhanudeenUniversiti Kebangsaan Malaysia , Malaysia
1- AbstractThe function of language choices in the domain of international diplomacy is often to avoid potential conflict or confrontation due to the regular norm in the diplomatic world to maintain bilateral or multilateral relations between countries.This paper examines the language choices in formal speeches used among others during the recent Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) meeting held in Kuala Lumpur. By focusing on this sphere, the paper aims to identify and reveal conventions and norms present in the texts selected that can assist in the general goal of avoiding conflict with other countries. The paper, finally hopes to offer a glimpse into the challenging art of becoming a true diplomat, that is the ability to convey the unsaid in a manner as effective as what is said. 2- Introduction and Background InformationHafriza’s (2003a, 2003b) research findings with regard to language and diplomacy suggest that the function of language choices used in international diplomacy is often to avoid potential conflict or confrontation due to the regular norm in the diplomatic world to maintain bilateral and multilateral relations between countries. Present in both the contexts investigated in the aforementioned studies was the preferance for the use of particular words and phrases that would contribute positively to the desired form of communication in international diplomacy. Aside from the words and phrases highlighted in Hafriza (2003a, 2003b), this paper wishes to enlarge the corpus of words and phrases regularly used in international diplomacy through the exploration of language choices in speeches in relation to the established goal in diplomacy of maintaining cordial relations between countries. In this paper, the use of the term diplomatic register is preferred. In relation to seeking a suitable framework to couch the discussion of diplomatic registers, Swales (1990), describes in some detail the sometimes unclear distinction between genre and register , quoting discussion from scholars such as Halliday (1978), Frow (1980), Martin (1985), Bhatia (1993) and Couture (1986). Here, the understanding of genre and register as expoused by Martin (1985) and Couture (1986) is borrowed. According to Martin (1985 in Swales (1990:40), “Genres are realized through registers and registers in turn are realized through language. Genres are how things get done, when language is used to accomplish them. They range from literary to far from literary forms: poems, narratives, expositions, lectures, seminars, recipes, manuals, appointment-making, service encounters, news broadcast and so on. The term genre is used here to embrace each of the linguistically realized activity types which comprise so much of our culture.” Couture (1986 in Swales (1990:41), on the other hand, indicates that “the two concepts need to be kept apart: genres (research report, explanation, business report) are completely structured texts while registers (language of scientific reporting, language of newspaper reporting, bureaucratic language) represent more generalized stylistic choices (emphasis mine).” Given the information above, this paper thus intends to focus only on presenting some of the‘generalized stylistic choices -registers’ in the genre of speeches typically found in the diplomatic domain. The notion of discourse community as expoused by Bizzel (1987) and Williams (1998) is also an important backdrop accompanying the understanding of diplomatic register used in this paper. According to Bizzel (1987 in Swales (1990:29), a ‘discourse community is a group of people who share certain language-using practices. These practices can be seen as conventionalized in two ways, Stylistic conventions regulate social interactions both within the group and in its dealings with outsiders....” Swales (ibid:29), in addition, emphasises that members of a discourse community has “mechanisms of intercommunication among its members, has acquired some specific lexis, possess one or more genres in the communicative furtherance of its aims and has a broadly agreed set of common public goals.” These aspects of a discourse community can, according to my on-going research in language and diplomacy as well as being a participant-observer as the spouse of a foreign-service officer, be extended to the international diplomatic domain. In this type of domain, words and phrases used in the selected speeches chosen can also be freely utilized in non-diplomatic domains unlike words such as ‘yellow card’ ‘red card’ and ‘offside’ as primarily predictable registers in football. In this paper then, I would like to add to the plethora of existing categories and insights for the term ‘register’ by arguing for a broader treatment that allows general words and phrases to be regarded as registers when used in a specific situation, addressing a specific audience and wanting specific goals to be attained and goals that can only be accomplished by the same specific audience. Such is the context of international diplomacy where conscious stylistic choices, carrying significant communicative intent, are regularly made to galvanize the audience to achieve a commonality of purpose through the enactment of brotherhood among member states. This commonality of purpose and orientation as members of a discourse community can lead to the construction of a self-sustaining group identity and become part and parcel of why particular registers abound in many genres in the diplomatic corps. These aspects of a discourse community will be illustrated in section 3 of this paper in tandem with the research findings. 3- MethodologyThis paper describes registers used in eight selected speeches used on the occasion of the XII Summit Conference of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), 2003, in Kuala Lumpur, the 10th Islamic Summit (OIC), 2003, in Kuala Lumpur, the Asian-African Sub-Regional Organization Conference (AASROC), 2003, in Bandung, Indonesia, the Regional Ministerial Meeting on Counter-Terrorism, 2004, in Bali, Indonesia, and finally, The ASEAN-CHINA dialogue in, 1999, Singapore. Only eight are highlighted in this paper due to observation that they contain all the typical elements expected in the genre of speeches in the arena of international diplomacy. Descriptive adequacy of the data found will be the primary concern in this study due to the purpose in this paper of highlighting the salient features of diplomatic registers found in the speeches selected. The inclination towards descriptive adequacy and second, explanatory adequacy where necessary, will be augmented by the feedback by some experts in the field viz senior foreign-service officers through interview data. Here, sample speeches were provided for their perusal and comments. Indeed, their summation on the types of stylistic choices expected in contexts specified above will be the backbone of the data description. We begin with the discussion of registers in speeches in section III below. 4- Diplomatic Registers in SpeechesSpeeches in the international diplomacy domain generally have 4 sections. First the opening salutation. This is then followed by the greetings and praise section, the summoning cooperation section and finally the conclusion. These sections will be described in turn below. 4a. Section 1: Opening salutationsAccording to interview data, opening salutations in speeches are a must in the diplomatic discourse community. Knowledge of protocol is also essential in determining the rank and file of addressees present to ensure the order of salutations in the opening is proper and correct. The typical registers expected here can be encapsulated in H.E. Thabo Mbeki’s (President of South Africa) opening address during the Non-Aligned Movement conference, 24 February 2003: Your Majesties Your Excellencies, Heads of State and Government Your Excellencies Ministers, High Commissioners and Ambassadors Distingished Delegates, Observers and Guests Ladies and Gentlemen The example above shows that royalty is always given precedence followed by Heads of State, Ministers, Ambassadors, High Commissioners and finally all others as ladies and gentlemen . This is the expected convention when there are too many dignitaries to mention by name. As indicated above, members of royalty are collectively honoured with Your Majesties, Heads of State and Government, Ministers, High Commissioners and Ambassadors collectively as Excellencies followed by the conventional use of Distinguished for members of the audience not royal nor possessing high government or ministrial posts. Finally, the use of the very conventional and also frequently used in all speech genres; Ladies and Gentlemen . The expected registers in opening salutations above was the norm for many of the speeches thus, surveyed, acknowledging membership and knowledge of diplomatic conventions. A speaker, however, can have the flexilibility to acknowledge the host by name eventhough other dignitaries outrank him to show respect to the representative of the host country. This can be seen in H.E. Hamid Karzai’s (President of the Transistional Islamic State of Afghanistan) opening salutations during the 10th Session of the Islamic Summit Conference (OIC) where the leader of the host country, the Honourable Prime Minister, Mathathir Mohammad, is acknowledged prior to other members. Our Gracious host, Honourable Prime Minister, Mathathir Mohammad, Chairman of the 10th Session of the Islamic Summit Conference Your Majesties Your Royal Highnesses Your Excellencies Brothers and sisters Assalam o Alaikum ! (Peace be upon you). The example above has brothers and sisters instead of ‘ladies and gentlemen’ and a greeting common in the Islamic world, Assalam o Alaikum ! (Peace be upon you). These registers were considered unconventional for general use in the diplomatic discourse community internationally as eventhough the OIC conference was largely made up of Muslim delegates, there were also those the non-Islamic faith attending. It is, however, accepted in the Islamic discourse community. Thus, the Islamic discourse community within the larger diplomatic discourse community made the last two phrases acceptable for use and especially and only during such conferences as the OIC Summit. The speaker has also included the salutation of Your Royal Highnesses, in addition to Your Majesties. Here, the speaker is seen to exercise the proper form of addressing Crown Princes, Princes as Royal Highnesses and reigning monarchs as Majesties. In the context of the OIC Summit, however, interview data suggest that the use of Majesties could be adopted if the presence of Crown Princes was on behalf of the reigning monarchs from their respective countries. The language of salutations below by President Vladimir Putin, President of Russia, during OIC, was regarded as not conforming to diplomatic discourse conventions in the genre of speeches due to the absence of protocol with regard to the type of dignitaries present. President Putin’s opening salutation was simply Mr. Chairman Meeting Participants President Putin’s opening salutation, thus, acknowledged the Chairman, the Prime Minister of Malaysia in this case, followed by Royalty, Ministers, High Commissioners, Ambassadors and Heads of state all subsumed under Meeting Participants. Although this was regarded by the interview team as unconventional in the international diplomacy context, it reflects the vestige of an egalitarian communist society where everybody is considered equal. Hence the salutation meetings participants as transposed from comrades. In a smaller scale meeting, finally, and a speech is expected, only the top dignitaries are expected to be mentioned prior to other participants. A typical example of registers used here can be seen in the opening salutation by Foreign Minister of Malaysia at the Asean-China Dialogue in 1999, in Singapore. The Foreign Minister said Your Excellency Tang Jiaxuan Minister of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China Your Excellency Ali Alatas Minister for Foreign Affairs of the Republic Of Indonesia Distinguished Delegates Ladies and Gentlemen Here, the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Peoples’s Republic of China is acknowledged first due to his senority in said post over the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Indonesia. This criteria of seniority is also used in deciding the order of salutations in other contexts where several dignitaries possessing the same Ministrial post are present. 4b. Section 2: Greetings and praiseThe diplomatic discourse community also demands that appropriate registers are used in the obligatory section following the salutations. The registers used in this section are expected to convey praise for the host country’s leader in addition to extending greetings from the peoples of the speaker’s country. Here, for instance in examples 1 and 2 below, the aspect of praise can be seen in parts of examples 1 and 2 below viz I would like to seize the moment to express our heartfelt felicitations to Datuk Seri Dr. Mathathir Mohamad, distinguished Prime Minister of Malaysia on his deserved assumption of the chairmanship of the 10th Islamic Summit Conference and wishing him every success in discharging the formidable task ahead and The enterprise, energy, progress and prosperity achieved by Malaysia under Prime Minister’s sagacious leadership, is an example and beacon for the entire Islamic world. Example 1 The text below presents a classic example. This is by H.E Seyed Mohammad Kahtami , President of the Islamic Republic of Iran during OIC, October 16, 2003. The statement reads I avail myself of this opportunity to express my deep satisfaction for attending this august gathering of the Honourable Heads of State and Government of the States Members of the Organizaton of the Islamic Conference and to offer the warm fraternal greetings of the Muslims in Iran to all of you and all Islamic nations. I would like to seize the moment to express our heartfelt felicitations to Datuk Seri Dr. Mathathir Mohamad, distinguished Prime Minister of Malaysia on his deserved assumption of the chairmanship of the 10th Islamic Summit Conference and wishing him every success in discharging the formidable task ahead. Example 2 H.E. President General Pervez Musharraf of Pakistan, October 17, 2003. It is a pleasure and an honour to be here in fraternal Malaysia, together with so many great leaders from the Islamic world. Our welcome has been warm and gracious. We express our gratitude to H.E. Prime Minister Mathathir Muhammad, and to the government and people of Malaysia. The enterprise, energy, progress and prosperity achieved by Malaysia under Prime Minister’s sagacious leadership, is an example and beacon for the entire Islamic world. Words and phrases used above and also in examples 3 and 4 below such as distinguished, deserved assumption, and beacon for the entire Islamic world is typical of the effusive ‘gushing’ style of praise in the diplomatic discourse community. The language of greetings in examples 1-4 is similarly extended in a cordial and warm manner (the warm fraternal greetings, Our welcome has been warm and gracious and warm welcome and excellent hospitality. According to interview data, the stylistic choices used in said section is concerned with building rapport and trust in this section through praise, niceties, accolades and sometimes the accentuation of similarities over differences as in example 4 below:Though the mountains are high and the oceans are wide, it is a small world after all) Example 3 H.E. Joachim Alberto Chissano, President of the Republic of Mozambique, October 2003. Allow me to begin by expressing our gratitude to the People and the Government of Malaysia the warm welcome and excellent hospitality accorded to use since our arrival. I bring greetings from the Mozambique people to the Malaysian people. In my capacity as Chairman of the African union, I equally salute you and the Islamic community on behalf of the people of Africa. Example 4 H.E Dato Seri Abdullah Ahmad Badawi, 1988, (then Foreign Minister of Malaysia)-Speech at the Asia Society California Centre. I am pleased and honoured to be here this morning . I am pleased because I am in the company of old friends. I am honoured because I know I am in the company of very illustrious and important persons. Besides being members of the Pacific Coast Asia you also represent other important companies and organizations. As members of the Pacific Coast Asia Society you form particularly important bridges between Asia, including Malaysia and the United States of America. Though the mountains are high and the oceans are wide, it is a small world after all. The underlined words in examples 1-4 above (emphasis mine) are also registers used in other spoken and written genres in the diplomatic discourse community to establish rapport. These words include avail, august, fraternal, heartfelt, pleasure, pleased, honourable,warm greetings, warm and gracious (greetings)and honour (for further information, please view Hafriza (2003a). 4c. Section 3: Summoning cooperationThe mandatory praise and warm fuzzy greetings over, the middle section of the genre of speeches in international diplomacy focuses the goal of summoning a sense of commonality, of cooperation, of compromise, of consensus over differences among peoples. This is where conventional diplomatic language is at its best viz the deliberate use of words and phrases so pregnant with meaning and reflection to achieve the primary purpose of continually enacting mutual goals in international diplomacy.These aspects, so important, to the survival of the diplomatic discourse community is often repeated and emphasized in various ways throughout the text. In a speech, the middle section has two phrases. The introductory phase needs to present a particular situation of mutual concern to justify the second phase, the building of mutual cooperation and collaboration to overcome the situation presented. Here, the speaker’s communicative intent, has through examination of the speech samples, the presence of conjoined embedded clauses, (example 4 :Inherent to this is the absolute necessity that we, who proclaim these positions, must not hesitate to act to ensure such peaceful resolution, even in instances that affect our member states) leading to lengthy complex sentences (Example 5: The murderous outrage of September 11, 2001, preceded by the 1998 massacres in Nairobi, Kenya and the Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania, and suceeded by the slaughter of the innocents in Bali, Indonesia last year, have seemed to confirm that terrorism was set to become the final arbiter with regard to the central matter of the safety and security of all human beings). All this can display a certain level of wordiness and redundancy given that the message can be stated in a more direct manner. Interview data, however, indicate the affection for lengthy and complex sentences as the norm in international diplomacy. This is due to the need to be as formal and as polite as possible in language. Polite, here, refer to the constant pressure to couch requests, demands, in a manner conducive to attaining cooperation. Verbosity , too, can have the added effect of minimizing imposition in requests as it gives the hearer some latitude to refuse. In so doing, the politeness of the speaker will be acknowledged and Face (Brown and Levinson:1987) would be continually enhanced and maintained. Text observation indicates the speech genre is also marked by the frequent use of pronouns, ‘we,’ ‘our,’ ‘us,’ in particular followed by ‘I,’ ‘you,’ ‘them,’ and ‘they.’ The data suggest that the use of ‘we’ and ‘our’ alternate between the ‘we’ the international diplomatic community and ‘we’ the national identity belonging to the speaker and the citizens of his country. Similarly, the use of ‘our.’ Then the ‘they’ and ‘them’ as a natural constrast to ‘we’ the former being a ‘burden’ in some way to both ‘we-s.’ Certainly, also, examination of examples 4-8 indicate a sense of unity and collaboration of both uses of ‘we’ against ‘them.’ Examples 4-8 also enact a conventional device used in the context of seeking cooperation viz the portrayal of negative and positive images through carefully selected words and phrases. This will be highlighted in the next section. We begin with example 4 below. Example 4 We meet in a turbulent and troubled moment in history. The world is in turmoil. Reliance on military action and force define solutions to world disputes. Foreign occupation persists. Supression of people has instensified. Power asymmetries are widening. Terrorism has spread. Economic recession threathens. Poverty is growing. Inequality is increasing.... We must recognize that, unfortunately, the crisis confronting the Islamic world is not only external, it is also internal. It is rooted in our weaknesses and vulnerability. It flows from our economic, social and human underdevelopment; from our dependencies and vulnerabilities; from the divisions and differences within, and amongst our societies and states .... Excellencies, we are at a defining moment in history, we can either seize the moment and define history or we can let the moment define destiny. We must turn challenge into opportunity. We must reflect and act quickly and collectively---for the sake of our suffering peoples and of our future generations. We must act to keep alive the immutable message of Islam and the glorious legacy of which we are the heirs. We can also help other. Collectively we can, and must, assist the poorest amongst us. ....The time has come to rise above our differences, build on our convergences and create a bright image for our nations. We will give our people the dignity, fulfillment and development that they aspire for. And we will speak to other nations of the world with confidence and ask them to join us in our quest to ensure justice, to wipe out poverty and spread enlightenment. Example 4 above is taken from parts of speech by President Pervez Musharraf of Pakistan during the 10th Session Islamic Conference (OIC) on October 17, 2003. According to interview data with senior foreign service officers, the beginning of this section typically begins with the highlighting of general and specific problems plaguing the world, in this case, terrorism, foreign occupation, economic recession, and widening power asymmetries. These in tandem with words such as turbulent, troubled, turmoil, spread, disputes and threathens serve to intensify the state of the situation highlighted. From the section of ‘this -is-what-is-happening-in-the-world , the language of this section is then regularly infused with the rhetoric of ‘we’ ‘our’ versus ‘them.’ President Musharraf’s speech is four and a 1/4 pages long in actuality. The three final pages is filled with the rhetoric of ‘we’ ‘us and ‘our’ suggesting an emphasis on the building of mutual cooperation and solidarity. Altogether, there are 16 instances of the use of ‘we’ and 25 instances of the use of ‘our.’ As mentioned earlier, the use of the ‘we’ and the ‘our’ can alternate between ‘we’ the diplomatic discourse community and ‘we’ the Pakistan people. Similarly, the use of ‘our,’ ‘the fate of our collectively world’ versus ‘the thoughts and concerns of the Pakistani people.’ This is also typical in international diplomacy where the speaker , on behalf of the national ‘we’ constructs ultimately the collective ‘we’ for the purposes of cooperation, consensus and collaboration and solidarity . This can be seen in the fact that the ‘we’ the diplomatic discourse community is more pronounced than the Pakistani “we’ or ‘our.’ An example of this is reflected in the second paragraph of example 4 above. Here, the shift to encourage collectivism and action can also be seen through the sense and meaning inherent in use of the following words, opportunity, quickly and collectively, act to keep alive, help, assist, convergences, bright image, dignity, fulfillment, aspire, confidence, justice, enlightenment further progress, revival, reform, tolerance, emancipation and human exultation. Compare this with words used earlier , terrorism, foreign occupation, economic recession, widening power asymmetries, turbulent, troubled, turmoil, spread, disputes, wanton, threathens and the following words also in the text but not mentioned below; discrimination, clash, confrontation, division, hatred, tarnish, hijack, vengence, violence and anger – the latter all used to persuade collective action by portraying negative images. As in example 4 above, the presence of words to inspire cooperation are also visible in example 5 below as consistent persuasive strategy to initiate mutual action. Negative images typically dominate the first few paragraphs with words such as murderous outrage, massacres, slaughter, terrorism, safety and security further from text, destroy, undermine, instability, deadly blow, pain, and growing improverishment followed by inspiring positive images during the call for rapport, cooperation and collaboration; defend, reassert, peaceful resolution, hope, reaffirm, dialogue, like-minded countries, cooperation, unity, solidarity and victory. According to interview data, the italicized words in examples 4 and 5 are also used in other genres in the diplomatic discourse community in concordance with the normal practice of sounding the clarion call for collective responsibity and action. Thus, similar and familar words are often deliberately chosen to help achieve the goal desired. Example 5 (Taken from Thabo Mbeki’s speech at the Non-Aligned Movement Conference, 24 February, 2003) The murderous outrage of September 11, 2001, preceded by the 1998 massacres in Nairobi, Kenya and the Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania, and suceeded by the slaughter of the innocents in Bali, Indonesia last year, have seemed to confirm that terrorism was set to become the final arbiter with regard to the central matter of the safety and security of all human beings. Our obligation to defend what we stand for requires that we reassert and vigorously defend our commitment to the peaceful resolution of international conflicts. Inherent to this is the absolute necessity that we, who proclaim these positions, must not hesitate to act to ensure such peaceful resolution, even in instances that affect our member states It demands of us that we do everything we can to protect and advance the principle and practice of multilateralism, against the tendency towards unilateralism. This requires that we fight even harder for the democratisation of the internal system of governance. For us to do all this requires we respect both the decisions we take collectively as well as governments, states and peoples . Our resolution must have greater meaning than the mere fact that we adopted them. Cooperation, unity and solidarity among ourselves as like-minded countries and movements, remain the only way to guarantee the effectiveness of the voice of the developing countries in global affairs. The final example 6 below shares with examples 4 and 5 above the registers conventionally contained in speeches in international diplomacy viz the tendency towards wordiness, embedding, and complex construction on the phrasal and sentential level. It also contains the norm of presenting a constrast of images in the selection of words and phrases. Here, in example 6 below, for example, we have challenging, sidelined,conflict, war, against manage, resolve, prevent, peace, understanding, tolerance, accomodation, constructively, just, fairer, commitment, common purpose and coordinated action and benefit. In addition, as with the earlier examples, the use of the collective ‘we’ is regularly used in tandem with ‘our’ both to encourage collective responsibility, concern, collaboration, consensus and action. Example 6 (Taken from speech of then Deputy Prime Mininster of Malaysia, OIC, October 16, 2003) The summit is taking place at a most challenging time for our organization. We continue to come to grips with the issues of poverty, social and economic development and political stability externally, the developing world continues to be sidelined by the wealthy, industralized countries which have tremendous influence over global affairs. ....We should be actively involved in efforts to manage, resolve and prevent conflicts in the world .. We should subsitute the culture of conflict and war with that of peace based on understanding, tolerance and accomodation. .... We must work constructively to shape the future of a just world order .. We must therefore continue to exert our combined efforts to ensure that globalisation works for the benefit for all.. The developing countries through NAM, the G77, the OIC ...must step up the fight for a fairer deal in international trade in which we are pitted against the biggest, richest and most powerful. We must demonstrate increased faith and commitment in south-south cooperation whole maximizing north-north cooperation . But as with the political challenges we face , we will only succeed if there is common purpose and coordinated action. 4d. Section 4: The language of conclusionThe final part of any speech is the conclusion. In the diplomatic discourse community, speeches are expected to end with an final emphasis on cooperation among member states. A classic example is presented below. Example 7 below was taken from the Foreign Minister of Malaysia’s speech at the Asian-African Sub-Regional Organization Conference, 29-30 July 2003 in Bandung, Indonesia. Here, the presentation of long, complex sentences and the use of inspiring (express the hope, reawakening, greater cooperation, collaboration, vision, success) language prevails. However, in constant to earlier sections, words or phrases that portray negative images are absent in the conclusion. He said: 'In conclusion, I wish to express the hope and expectation that the reawakening of the Spirit of Bandung would spur greater cooperation and collaboration between Asia and Africa in the years ahead, therby fulfilling the vision shared by the leaders in Bandung five decades ago. On behalf of the Non-aligned Movement, I wish the Conference every success in its important deliberations, in the interest of Asia and Africa , as well as all the countries of the South.' The second and final example below, example 8, is taken from the speech of H.E. Hamid Karzai, President of the Transistional Islamic State of Afghanistan. Here, motivation towards collective action is expresses through the use of such words as positive steps, work together, collective responsibility, collective well-being, engage constructively, dialogue and cooperation. As in the other examples shown, notice the multiple use of ‘we’ ‘our’ to stir up a sense of cooperation among member states. While challenges remain, I would like to think that the opportunity is there for us all to reverse negative trends by taking positive steps. Let’s work together to project to the world the true face of Islam. Self-interests, pursued by wrong methods, must not pervade our collective responsibility to the Ummah. We must also realize that our collective well-being as the Ummah depends on our capacity to engage constructively with the outside world. Let us advocate for a dialogue and cooperation among civilisations. In concluding the discussion above, this paper would also like to highlight some other devices used by the speakers to regularly convey their communicative intent. First, is the preference for the following parts of speech, must, can and will. Some examples from the speeches in this paper are given below: We must reflect and act quickly and collectively We must act to keep alive the immutable message of Islam… We must demonstrate increased faith and commitment We must work constructively to shape the future of a just world order Collectively, we can, and must assist the poorest amongst us We will give our people the dignity, fulfilment and development they aspire for We will speak to other nations of the world with confidence and ask them to join us We will only succeed if there is common purpose and coordinated action We can either seize the moment and define history or we can let the moment define destiny We can also help each other The function of the repeated use of words such as must, will, can is to support the objective to galvanize cooperation by using language that demonstrate necessity, optimism and confidence to achieve a common purpose and coordinated action to shape the future of a just world order and provide what peoples of the world aspire for viz dignity, fulfilment and development. The use of repetition to emphasize the goals of the community is an additional favoured device used in this speech genre to persuade hearers to be in unity with the speaker’s vision. This type of repetition can be seen in the following examples: It demands of us that we do everything we can to protect and advance the principle and practice of multilateralism, against the tendency towards unilateralism. This requires that we fight even harder for the democratisation of the internal system of governance. For us to do all this requires we respect both the decisions we take collectively as well as governments, states and peoples . Our resolution must have greater meaning than the mere fact that we adopted them. (Example 5) ....We should be actively involved in efforts to manage, resolve and prevent conflicts in the world .. We should subsitute the culture of conflict and war with that of peace based on understanding, tolerance and accomodation. .... We must work constructively to shape the future of a just world order .. We must therefore continue to exert our combined efforts to ensure that globalisation works for the benefit for all.. (Example 6) The successful establishment of a mutual vision, however, may not materialized at the initial gathering. Sometimes, according to interview data, actual government-government cooperation does not even occur due to constraints, financial or otherwise. Nevertheless, the discourse of promoting mutual cooperation over conflict and divisiveness endures even if no specific outcome is ultimately achieved despite the mootings of several plans of action. 5- List of other diplomatic registers usedThe word list in table 1 below contain other diplomatic registers (in addition to those used in examples 1-8) that are regularly used in the arena of international diplomacy in the effort to avoid the use of words that might lead to potential conflict among countries. Thus, words and phrases such as diplomatic compromise, diplomatic convention, collective responsibility, collective leadership and mutual peace and prosperity, mutual respect and other examples shown in table 1 are deliberately chosen to encourage, through sense and meaning collective support, trust and cooperation.Once achieved, the existing bilateral and multilateral relations among countries is seen to expand and enhance. TABLE 1
6- ConclusionThis paper focussed on several diplomatic registers conventionally used in the genre of speeches in the arena of international diplomacy. It has also highlighted the obligatory sections a speech must contain in the diplomatic context. These sections, are naturally, part of every speech in any context, viz the opening salutations, the introduction, the body and the conclusion. However, what distinguishes speeches in the diplomatic context from the business, military, education or legal context is the content that is required in each section of the speech and the registers that are expected to be used in the overidding goal to avoid disagreement, assume common ground or assert reciprocity to enhance and maintain good relations among member states. Interview data indicate that there is little flexibility given to the conventions expected in both style, language and substance in a speech for those belonging to the international discourse community in any context. This is compared to speeches in other domains where the speaker can vary the language, style and substance of their speeches in differing contexts. Data for this paper was gathered through eight selected speeches from conferences involving world leaders and primarily ministry of foreign affairs officials from around the world. Eventhough the leaders of said countries delivered the speech, the speech was written by members of their diplomatic corps familiar with the conventions of diplomatic discourse. This is why most of the speeches surveyed in such conferences were consistent in language and substance. This has been indicated in examples 1-8 where speeches written from even far flung corners of the globe carry the same message in the same style. The same message is seen, from my own research (2003a, 2003b) in the domain of diplomatic correspondence and negotiations. This phenomenon is also verified by interview data. So far, all this could suggest a confirmation of the challenging art of becoming a true diplomat, --that is having the ability to cajol and manipulate language to achieve the goals of the community. ReferencesTexts
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